Saxony, Landgraves of Thuringia, Margraves of Meissen,
Imperial Overlords of Saxony, Burgraves of Altenberg and Magdeburg, Counts of Brena, Lords of Pleissnerland, To MAURICE Grand Marshall and Elector of the Holy Roman Empire
and to his brother AUGUSTUS, 1 GEORGE AGRICOLA S. D. Most illustrious Princes, often have I considered the metallic arts as a whole, as Moderatus Columella 2 considered the agricultural arts, just as if I had been considering the whole of the human body; and when I had perceived the various parts of the subject, like so many members of the body, I became afraid that I might die before I should understand its full extent, much less before I
could immortalise it in writing. This book itself indicates the length and breadth of the subject, and the number and importance of the sciences of which at least some little knowledge is necessary to miners. Indeed, the subject of mining is a very exten−sive one, and one very difficult to explain; no part of it is fully dealt
with by the Greek and Latin authors whose works survive; and since the art is one of the most ancient, the most necessary and the most profitable to mankind, I considered that I ought not to neglect it. Without doubt, none of the arts is older than agriculture, but that of the metals is not less ancient; in fact they are at least equal and coeval, for no mortal man ever
tilled a field without implements. In truth, in all the works of agricul−ture, as in the other arts, implements are used which are made from metals, or which could not be made without the use of metals; for this reason the metals are of the greatest necessity to man. When an art is so poor that it lacks metals, it is not of much importance, for nothing is made without
tools. Besides, of all ways whereby great wealth is acquired by good and honest means, none is more advantageous than mining; for although from fields which are well tilled (not to mention other things) we derive rich yields, yet we obtain richer products from mines; in fact, one mine is often much more beneficial to us than many fields. For this reason we learn from the
history of nearly all ages that very many men have been made rich by the [141]
mines, and the fortunes of many kings have been much amplified there−by. But I will not now speak more of these matters, because I have dealt with these subjects partly in the first book of this work, and partly in the other work entitled De Veteribus et Novis Metallis, where I have refuted the charges which have been made against metals and against miners.
Now, though the art of husbandry, which I willingly rank with the art of mining, appears to be divided into many branches, yet it is not separated into so many as this art of ours, nor can I teach the principles of this as easily as Columella did of that. He had at hand many writers upon hus−bandry whom he could follow,in fact, there are more than fifty Greek
authors whom Marcus Varro enumerates, and more than ten Latin ones, whom Columella himself mentions. I have only one whom I can follow; that is C. Plinius Secundus, 3 and he expounds only a very few methods of digging ores and of making metals. Far from the whole of the art having been treated by any one writer, those who have written occasionally on any
one or another of its branches have not even dealt completely with a single one of them. Moreover, there is a great scarcity even of these, since alone of all the Greeks, Strato of Lampsacus, 4 the successor of Theophrastus, 5 wrote a book on the subject, De Machinis Metallicis; except, perhaps a work by the
poet Philo, a small part of which embraced to some degree the occupation of mining. 6 Pherecrates seems to have introduced into his comedy, which was similar in title, miners as slaves or as persons condemned to serve in the mines. Of the Latin writers, Pliny, as I have already said, has described a few methods of working. Also among the authors I must include the modern
writers, whosoever they are, for no one should escape just condemnation who fails to award due recognition to persons whose writings he uses, even very slightly. Two books have been written in our tongue; the one on the assaying of mineral substances and metals, somewhat confused, whose author
is unknown 7 ; the other "On Veins," of which Pandulfus Anglus 8 is also said to have written, although the German book was written by Calbus of Freiberg, a well−known doctor; but neither of them accomplished the task [142] he had begun. 9 Recently Vannucci Biringuccio, of Sienna, a wise man
experienced in many matters, wrote in vernacular Italian on the subject of the melting, separating, and alloying of metals. 10 He touched briefly on the methods of smelting certain ores, and explained more fully the methods of making certain juices; by reading his directions, I have refreshed my memory of those things which I myself
saw in Italy; as for many matters on which I write, he did not touch upon them at all, or touched but lightly. This book was given me by Franciscus Badoarius, a Patrician of Venice, and a man of wisdom and of repute; this he had promised that he would do, when in the previous year he was at Marienberg, having been sent by the Venetians as an Ambassador to King
Ferdinand. Beyond these books I do not find any writings on the metallic arts. For that reason, even if the book of Strato existed, from all these sources not one−half of the whole body of the science of mining could be pieced together.
Seeing that there have been so few who have written on the subject of the metals, it appears to me all the more wonderful that so many alchemists have arisen who would compound metals artificially, and who would change one into another. Hermolaus Barbarus, 11 a man of high rank and station, and distinguished in all kinds of learning, has mentioned the names of many in
his writings; and I will proffer more, but only famous ones, for I will limit myself to a few. Thus Osthanes has written on xumeutika/; and there are Hermes; Chanes; Zosimus, the Alexandrian, to his sister Theosebia; Olympiodorus, also an Alexandrian; Agathodæmon; Democritus, not the one of Abdera, but some other whom I know not; Orus Chrysorichites, Pebichius, Comerius,
Joannes, Apulejus, Petasius, Pelagius, Africanus, Theophilus, Synesius, Stephanus to Heracleus Cæsar, Heliodorus to Theodosius, Geber, Callides Rachaidibus, Veradianus, Rodianus, Canides, Merlin, Raymond Lully, Arnold de Villa Nova, and Augustinus Pantheus of Venice; and three women, Cleopatra, the maiden Taphnutia, and Maria the Jewess. 12 All these alchemists
employ obscure language, and Johanes Aurelius Augurellus of Rimini, alone has used the language of poetry. There are many other books on [143] this subject, but all are difficult to follow, because the writers upon these things use strange names, which do not properly belong to the metals, and because some of them employ now one name and now another, invented by
themselves, though the thing itself changes not. These masters teach their
disciples that the base metals, when smelted, are broken up; also they teach
the methods by which they reduce them to the primary parts and
remove whatever is superfluous in them, and by supplying what is
wanted make out of them the precious metalsthat is, gold and silver,
all of which they carry out in a crucible. Whether they can do these things
or not I cannot decide; but, seeing that so many writers assure us with all
earnestness that they have reached that goal for which they aimed, it would
seem that faith might be placed in them; yet also seeing that we do not
read of any of them ever having become rich by this art, nor do we now see
them growing rich, although so many nations everywhere have produced, and
are producing, alchemists, and all of them are straining every nerve night and
day to the end that they may heap a great quantity of gold and silver, I should
say the matter is dubious. But although it may be due to the carelessness
of the writers that they have not transmitted to us the names of the masters
who acquired great wealth through this occupation, certainly it is clear that
their disciples either do not understand their precepts or, if they do under−
stand them, do not follow them; for if they do comprehend them, seeing that
these disciples have been and are so numerous, they would have by to−day filled
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whole towns with gold and silver. Even their books proclaim their vanity, for
they inscribe in them the names of Plato and Aristotle and other philosophers,
in order that such high−sounding inscriptions may impose upon simple people
and pass for learning. There is another class of alchemists who do not
change the substance of base metals, but colour them to represent gold or silver,
so that they appear to be that which they are not, and when this appearance
is taken from them by the fire, as if it were a garment foreign to them, they
return to their own character. These alchemists, since they deceive people,
are not only held in the greatest odium, but their frauds are a capital offence.
No less a fraud, warranting capital punishment, is committed by a third sort
of alchemists; these throw into a crucible a small piece of gold or silver
hidden in a coal, and after mixing therewith fluxes which have the power of
extracting it, pretend to be making gold from orpiment, or silver from tin and
like substances. But concerning the art of alchemy, if it be an art, I will
speak further elsewhere. I will now return to the art of mining.
Since no authors have written of this art in its entirety, and since
foreign nations and races do not understand our tongue, and, if they did
understand it, would be able to learn only a small part of the art through the
works of those authors whom we do possess, I have written these twelve books
De Re Metallica. Of these, the first book contains the arguments which may
be used against this art, and against metals and the mines, and what can be
said in their favour. The second book describes the miner, and branches into
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45
a discourse on the finding of veins. The third book deals with veins and
stringers, and seams in the rocks. The fourth book explains the method of
delimiting veins, and also describes the functions of the mining officials.
The fifth book describes the digging of ore and the surveyor' s art. The
sixth book describes the miners' tools and machines. The seventh book is
on the assaying of ore. The eighth book lays down the rules for the work of
roasting, crushing, and washing the ore. The ninth book explains the
methods of smelting ores. The tenth book instructs those who are studious
of the metallic arts in the work of separating silver from gold, and lead from
gold and silver. The eleventh book shows the way of separating silver from
copper. The twelfth book gives us rules for manufacturing salt, soda, alum,
vitriol, sulphur, bitumen, and glass.
Although I have not fulfilled the task which I have undertaken, on account
of the great magnitude of the subject, I have, at all events, endeavoured to fulfil
it, for I have devoted much labour and care, and have even gone to some
expense upon it; for with regard to the veins, tools, vessels, sluices, machines,
and furnaces, I have not only described them, but have also hired illustrators
to delineate their forms, lest descriptions which are conveyed by words
should either not be understood by men of our own times, or should cause
difficulty to posterity, in the same way as to us difficulty is often caused by
many names which the Ancients (because such words were familiar to all of
them) have handed down to us without any explanation.
I have omitted all those things which I have not myself seen, or have
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not read or heard of from persons upon whom I can rely. That which I have
neither seen, nor carefully considered after reading or hearing of, I have not
written about. The same rule must be understood with regard to all my in−
struction, whether I enjoin things which ought to be done, or describe things
which are usual, or condemn things which are done. Since the art of mining
does not lend itself to elegant language, these books of mine are correspond−
ingly lacking in refinement of style. The things dealt with in this art of
metals sometimes lack names, either because they are new, or because, even
if they are old, the record of the names by which they were formerly known
has been lost. For this reason I have been forced by a necessity, for which I
must be pardoned, to describe some of them by a number of words combined,
and to distinguish others by new names,to which latter class belong Ingestor,
Discretor, Lotor, and Excoctor. 13 Other things, again, I have alluded to by old
names, such as the Cisium; for when Nonius Marcellus wrote, 14 this was
the name of a two−wheeled vehicle, but I have adopted it for a small vehicle
which has only one wheel; and if anyone does not approve of these names,
let him either find more appropriate ones for these things, or discover the
words used in the writings of the Ancients.
These books, most illustrious Princes, are dedicated to you for many
reasons, and, above all others, because metals have proved of the greatest
value to you; for though your ancestors drew rich profits from the revenues
of their vast and wealthy territories, and likewise from the taxes which were
paid by the foreigners by way of toll and by the natives by way of tithes, yet
they drew far richer profits from the mines. Because of the mines not a few
towns have risen into eminence, such as Freiberg, Annaberg, Marienberg,
Schneeberg, Geyer, and Altenberg, not to mention others. Nay, if I under−
stand anything, greater wealth now lies hidden beneath the ground in the
mountainous parts of your territory than is visible and apparent above
ground. Farewell.
Chemnitz, Saxony,
December First, 1550.
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BOOK I.
Many persons hold the opinion that the metal indus−
tries are fortuitous and that the occupation is one
of sordid toil, and altogether a kind of business
requiring not so much skill as labour. But as for
myself, when I reflect carefully upon its special
points one by one, it appears to be far otherwise.
For a miner must have the greatest skill in his
work, that he may know first of all what mountain
or hill, what valley or plain, can be prospected most
profitably, or what he should leave alone; moreover, he must understand the
veins, stringers 1 and seams in the rocks 2 . Then he must be thoroughly
familiar with the many and varied species of earths, juices 3 , gems,
stones, marbles, rocks, metals, and compounds 4 . He must also have a
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complete knowledge of the method of making all underground works
Lastly, there are the various systems of assaying 5 substances and o
preparing them for smelting; and here again there are many altogether
diverse methods. For there is one method for gold and silver, another
for copper, another for quicksilver, another for iron, another for lead, and
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even tin and bismuth 6 are treated differently from lead. Although the
evaporation of juices is an art apparently quite distinct from metallurgy,
yet they ought not to be considered separately, inasmuch as these juices
are also often dug out of the ground solidified, or they are produced from
certain kinds of earth and stones which the miners dig up, and some of the
juices are not themselves devoid of metals. Again, their treatment is not
simple, since there is one method for common salt, another for soda 7 ,
another for alum, another for vitriol 8 , another for sulphur, and another
for bitumen.
Furthermore, there are many arts and sciences of which a miner should
not be ignorant. First there is Philosophy, that he may discern the origin,
cause, and nature of subterranean things; for then he will be able to dig
out the veins easily and advantageously, and to obtain more abundant results
from his mining. Secondly, there is Medicine, that he may be able to look
after his diggers and other workmen, that they do not meet with those
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diseases to which they are more liable than workmen in other occupations,
or if they do meet with them, that he himself may be able to heal them or
may see that the doctors do so. Thirdly follows Astronomy, that he may
know the divisions of the heavens and from them judge the direction of
the veins. Fourthly, there is the science of Surveying that he may be able
to estimate how deep a shaft should be sunk to reach the tunnel which is
being driven to it, and to determine the limits and boundaries in these
workings, especially in depth. Fifthly, his knowledge of Arithmetical Science
should be such that he may calculate the cost to be incurred in the
machinery and the working of the mine. Sixthly, his learning must comprise
Architecture, that he himself may construct the various machines and timber
work required underground, or that he may be able to explain the method
of the construction to others. Next, he must have knowledge of Drawing,
that he can draw plans of his machinery. Lastly, there is the Law, especially
that dealing with metals, that he may claim his own rights, that he may
undertake the duty of giving others his opinion on legal matters, that he
may not take another man' s property and so make trouble for himself, and
that he may fulfil his obligations to others according to the law.
It is therefore necessary that those who take an interest in the methods
and precepts of mining and metallurgy should read these and others of our
books studiously and diligently; or on every point they should consult
expert mining people, though they will discover few who are skilled in the
whole art. As a rule one man understands only the methods of mining,
another possesses the knowledge of washing 9 , another is experienced in the
art of smelting, another has a knowledge of measuring the hidden parts of
the earth, another is skilful in the art of making machines, and finally,
another is learned in mining law. But as for us, though we may not have
perfected the whole art of the discovery and preparation of metals, at least
we can be of great assistance to persons studious in its acquisition.
But let us now approach the subject we have undertaken. Since there
has always been the greatest disagreement amongst men concerning metals
and mining, some praising, others utterly condemning them, therefore I have
decided that before imparting my instruction, I should carefully weigh
the facts with a view to discovering the truth in this matter.
So I may begin with the question of utility, which is a two−fold one,
for either it may be asked whether the art of mining is really profitable or
not to those who are engaged in it, or whether it is useful or not to the rest
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of mankind. Those who think mining of no advantage to the men who follow
the occupation assert, first, that scarcely one in a hundred who dig metals or
other such things derive profit therefrom; and again, that miners, because they
entrust their certain and well−established wealth to dubious and slippery
fortune, generally deceive themselves, and as a result, impoverished by
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expenses and losses, in the end spend the most bitter and most miserable of
lives. But persons who hold these views do not perceive how much a learned
and experienced miner differs from one ignorant and unskilled in the art.
The latter digs out the ore without any careful discrimination, while the
former first assays and proves it, and when he finds the veins either too
narrow and hard, or too wide and soft, he infers therefrom that these cannot
be mined profitably, and so works only the approved ones. What wonder
then if we find the incompetent miner suffers loss, while the competent one
is rewarded by an abundant return from his mining? The same thing
applies to husbandmen. For those who cultivate land which is alike arid,
heavy, and barren, and in which they sow seeds, do not make so great a
harvest as those who cultivate a fertile and mellow soil and sow their grain
in that. And since by far the greater number of miners are unskilled rather
than skilled in the art, it follows that mining is a profitable occupation to
very few men, and a source of loss to many more. Therefore the mass of
miners who are quite unskilled and ignorant in the knowledge of veins not
infrequently lose both time and trouble 10 . Such men are accustomed for the
most part to take to mining, either when through being weighted with the
fetters of large and heavy debts, they have abandoned a business, or desiring to
change their occupation, have left the reaping−hook and plough; and so
if at any time such a man discovers rich veins or other abounding mining
produce, this occurs more by good luck than through any knowledge on his
part. We learn from history that mining has brought wealth to many, for
from old writings it is well known that prosperous Republics, not a few kings,
and many private persons, have made fortunes through mines and their
produce. This subject, by the use of many clear and illustrious examples, I
have dilated upon and explained in the first Book of my work entitled " De
Veteribus et Novis Metallis, " from which it is evident that mining is very
profitable to those who give it care and attention.
Again, those who condemn the mining industry say that it is not in the
least stable, and they glorify agriculture beyond measure. But I do not see
how they can say this with truth, for the silver−mines at Freiberg in Meissen
remain still unexhausted after 400 years, and the lead mines of Goslar after 600
years. The proof of this can be found in the monuments of history. The
gold and silver mines belonging to the communities of Schemnitz and
Cremnitz have been worked for 800 years, and these latter are said to be
the most ancient privileges of the inhabitants. Some then say the profit
from an individual mine is unstable, as if forsooth, the miner is, or ought to
be dependent on only one mine, and as if many men do not bear in common
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their expenses in mining, or as if one experienced in his art does not dig
another vein, if fortune does not amply respond to his prayers in the first
case. The New Schönberg at Freiberg has remained stable beyond the
memory of man 11 .
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It is not my intention to detract anything from the dignity of agri−
culture, and that the profits of mining are less stable I will always and readly
admit, for the veins do in time cease to yield metals, whereas the fields bring
lorth fruits every year. But though the business of mining may be loss
reliable it is more productive, so that in reckoning up, what is wanting in
stability is found to be made up by productiveness. Indeed, the yearly
profit of a lead mine in comparison with the fruitfulness of the best fields,
is three times or at least twice as great. How much does the profit from
gold or silver mines exceed that earned from agriculture? Wherefore truly
and shrewdly does Xenophon 12 write about the Athenian silver mines:
"There is land of such a nature that if you sow, it does not yield crops,
but if you dig, it nourishes many more than if it had borne fruit." So let
the farmers have for themselves the fruitful fields and cultivate the fertile
hills for the sake of their produce; but let them leave to miners the gloomy
valleys and sterile mountains, that they may draw forth from these, gens
and metals which can buy, not only the crops, but all things that are sold.
The critics say further that mining is a perilous occupation to pursue,
because the miners are sometimes killed by the pestilential air which they
breathe; sometimes their lungs rot away; sometimes the men perish by being
crushed in masses of rock; sometimes, falling from the ladders into the
shafts, they break their arms, legs, or necks; and it is added there is no com−
pensation which should be thought great enough to equalize the extreme
dangers to safety and life. These occurrences, I confess, are of exceeding
gravity, and moreover, fraught with terror and peril, so that I should con−
sider that the metals should not be dug up at all, if such things were to happen
very frequently to the miners, or if they could not safely guard against such
risks by any means. Who would not prefer to live rather than to possess
all things, even the metals? For he who thus perishes possesses nothing,
but relinquishes all to his heirs. But since things like this rarely happen,
and only in so far as workmen are careless, they do not deter miners from
carrying on their trade any more than it would deter a carpenter from his,
because one of his mates has acted incautiously and lost his life by falling
from a high building. I have thus answered each argument which critics are
wont to put before me when they assert that mining is an undesirable occuppa−
tion, because it involves expense with uncertainty of return, because it is
changeable, and because it is dangerous to those engaged in it.
Now I come to those critics who say that mining is not useful to the
rest of mankind because forsooth, gems, metals, and other mineral products
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are worthless in themselves. This admission they try to extort from us,
partly by arguments and examples, partly by misrepresentations and abuse of
us. First, they make use of this argument: "The earth does not conceal
and remove from our eyes those things which are useful and necessary to
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mankind, but on the contrary, like a beneficent and kindly mother she yields
in large abundance from her bounty and brings into the light of day the
herbs, vegetables, grains, and fruits, and the trees. The minerals on the
other hand she buries far beneath in the depth of the ground; therefore,
they should not be sought. But they are dug out by wicked men who, as
the poets say, are the products of the Iron Age." Ovid censures their
audacity in the following lines:
"And not only was the rich soil required to furnish corn and due
sustenance, but men even descended into the entrails of the earth, and
they dug up riches, those incentives to vice, which the earth had hidden
and had removed to the Stygian shades. Then destructive iron came
forth, and gold, more destructive than iron; then war came forth." 13
Another of their arguments is this: Metals offer to men no advantages,
therefore we ought not to search them out. For whereas man is composed
of soul and body, neither is in want of minerals. The sweetest food of the
soul is the contemplation of nature, a knowledge of the finest arts and sciences,
an understanding of virtue; and if he interests his mind in excellent things,
if he exercise his body, he will be satisfied with this feast of noble thoughts and
knowledge, and have no desire for other things. Now although the human
body may be content with necessary food and clothing, yet the fruits of the
earth and the animals of different kinds supply him in wonderful abundance
with food and drink, from which the body may be suitably nourished and
strengthened and life prolonged to old age. Flax, wool, and the skins of
many animals provide plentiful clothing low in price; while a luxurious kind,
not hard to procurethat is the so called seric material, is furnished by the
down of trees and the webs of the silk worm. So that the body has absolutely
no need of the metals, so hidden in the depths of the earth and for the greater
part very expensive. Wherefore it is said that this maxim of Euripides is
approved in assemblies of learned men, and with good reason was always on
the lips of Socrates:
"Works of silver and purple are of use, not for human life, but
rather for Tragedians." 14
These critics praise also this saying from Timocreon of Rhodes:
"O Unseeing Plutus, would that thou hadst never appeared in the
earth or in the sea or on the land, but that thou didst have thy habita−
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tion in Tartarus and Acheron, for out of thee arise all evil things which
overtake mankind" 15 .
They greatly extol these lines from Phocylides:
"Gold and silver are injurious to mortals; gold is the source of
crime, the plague of life, and the ruin of all things. Would that thou
were not such an attractive scourge! because of thee arise robberies,
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homicides, warfare, brothers are maddened against brothers, a
children against parents."
This from Naumachius also pleases them:
"Gold and silver are but dust, like the stones that lie scattered
the pebbly beach, or on the margins of the rivers."
On the other hand, they censure these verses of Euripides:
"Plutus is the god for wise men: all else is mere folly and at t
same time a deception in words."
So in like manner these lines from Theognis:
"O Plutus, thou most beautiful and placid god! whilst I have th
however bad I am, I can be regarded as good."
They also blame Aristodemus, the Spartan, for these words:
"Money makes the man; no one who is poor is either good
honoured."
And they rebuke these songs of Timocles:
"Money is the life and soul of mortal men. He who has n
heaped up riches for himself wanders like a dead man amongst t
living."
Finally, they blame Menander when he wrote:
"Epicharmus asserts that the gods are water, wind, fire, earth, su
and stars. But I am of opinion that the gods of any use to us are silv
and gold; for if thou wilt set these up in thy house thou mayest se
whatever thou wilt. All things will fall to thy lot; land, houses, slav
silver−work; moreover friends, judges, and witnesses. Only give free
for thus thou hast the gods to serve thee."
But besides this, the strongest argument of the detractors is that t
fields are devastated by mining operations, for which reason forme
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Italians were warned by law that no one should dig the earth for metals a
so injure their very fertile fields, their vineyards, and their olive grov
Also they argue that the woods and groves are cut down, for there is need
an endless amount of wood for timbers, machines, and the smelting of meta
And when the woods and groves are felled, then are exterminated the bea
and birds, very many of which furnish a pleasant and agreeable food for ma
Further, when the ores are washed, the water which has been used pois
the brooks and streams, and either destroys the fish or drives them awa
Therefore the inhabitants of these regions, on account of the devastation
their fields, woods, groves, brooks and rivers, find great difficulty in procur
the necessaries of life, and by reason of the destruction of the timber th
are forced to greater expense in erecting buildings. Thus it is said, it
clear to all that there is greater detriment from mining than the value
the metals which the mining produces.
So in fierce contention they clamour, showing by such examples
follow that every great man has been content with virtue, and despis
metals. They praise Bias because he esteemed the metals mer
as fortune' s playthings, not as his real wealth. When his enemies h
captured his native Priene, and his fellow−citizens laden with precious thin
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had betaken themselves to flight, he was asked by one, why he carried
away none of his goods with him, and he replied, "I carry all my possessions
with me." And it is said that Socrates, having received twenty minae sent
to him by Aristippus, a grateful disciple, refused them and sent them back to
him by the command of his conscience. Aristippus, following his example
in this matter, despised gold and regarded it as of no value. And once
when he was making a journey with his slaves, and they, laden with the
gold, went too slowly, he ordered them to keep only as much of it as they
could carry without distress and to throw away the remainder 16 . Moreover,
Anacreon of Teos, an ancient and noble poet, because he had been troubled
about them for two nights, returned five talents which had been given him
by Polycrates, saying that they were not worth the anxiety which he had
gone through on their account. In like manner celebrated and exceedingly
powerful princes have imitated the philosophers in their scorn and contempt
for gold and silver. There was for example, Phocion, the Athenian, who was
appointed general of the army so many times, and who, when a large sum of gold
was sent to him as a gift by Alexander, King of Macedon, deemed it trifling and
scorned it. And Marcus Curius ordered the gold to be carried back to the
Samnites, as did also Fabricius Luscinus with regard to the silver and
copper. And certain Republics have forbidden their citizens the use and
employment of gold and silver by law and ordinance; the Lacedaemonians,
by the decrees and ordinances of Lycurgus, used diligently to enquire among
their citizens whether they possessed any of these things or not, and the
possessor, when he was caught, was punished according to law and justice.
The inhabitants of a town on the Tigris, called Babytace, buried their gold
in the ground so that no one should use it. The Scythians condemned the
use of gold and silver so that they might not become avaricious.
Further are the metals reviled; in the first place people wantonly
abuse gold and silver and call them deadly and nefarious pests of the human
race, because those who possess them are in the greatest peril, for those who
have none lay snares for the possessors of wealth, and thus again and again
the metals have been the cause of destruction and ruin. For example,
Polymnestor, King of Thrace, to obtain possession of his gold, killed Polydorus,
his noble guest and the son of Priam, his father−in−law, and old friend.
Pygmalion, the King of Tyre, in order that he might seize treasures of gold
and silver, killed his sister' s husband, a priest, taking no account of either
kinship or religion. For love of gold Eriphyle betrayed her husband
Amphiaraus to his enemy. Likewise Lasthenes betrayed the city of
Olynthus to Philip of Macedon. The daughter of Spurius Tarpeius, having
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been bribed with gold, admitted the Sabines into the citadel of Rome.
Claudius Curio sold his country for gold to Cæsar, the Dictator. Gold, too,
was the cause of the downfall of Aesculapius, the great physician, who it was
believed was the son of Apollo. Similarly Marcus Crassus, through his
eager desire for the gold of the Parthians, was completely overcome together
with his son and eleven legions, and became the jest of his enemies; for they
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poured liquid gold into the gaping mouth of the slain Crassus, saying:
"Thou hast thirsted for gold, therefore drink gold."
But why need I cite here these many examples from history? 17 It is
almost our daily experience to learn that, for the sake of obtaining gold and
silver, doors are burst open, walls are pierced, wretched travellers are struck
down by rapacious and cruel men born to theft, sacrilege, invasion, and
robbery. We see thieves seized and strung up before us, sacrilegious persons
burnt alive, the limbs of robbers broken on the wheel, wars waged for the
same reason, which are not only destructive to those against whom they are
waged, but to those also who carry them on. Nay, but they say that the
precious metals foster all manner of vice, such as the seduction of women,
adultery, and unchastity, in short, crimes of violence against the person.
Therefore the Poets, when they represent Jove transformed into a golden
shower and falling into the lap of Danae, merely mean that he had found
for himself a safe road by the use of gold, by which he might enter the tower
for the purpose of violating the maiden. Moreover, the fidelity of many
men is overthrown by the love of gold and silver, judicial sentences are
bought, and innumerable crimes are perpetrated. For truly, as Propertius
says:
"This is indeed the Golden Age. The greatest rewards come from
gold; by gold love is won; by gold is faith destroyed; by gold is justice
bought; the law follows the track of gold, while modesty will soon
follow it when law is gone."
Diphilus says:
"I consider that nothing is more powerful than gold. By it all
things are torn asunder; all things are accomplished."
Therefore, all the noblest and best despise these riches, deservedly and
with justice, and esteem them as nothing. And this is said by the old man
in Plautus:
"I hate gold. It has often impelled many people to many wrong
acts."
In this country too, the poets inveigh with stinging reproaches against money
coined from gold and silver. And especially did Juvenal:
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"Since the majesty of wealth is the most sacred thing among us;
although, O pernicious money, thou dost not yet inhabit a temple, nor
have we erected altars to money."
And in another place:
"Demoralising money first introduced foreign customs, and
voluptuous wealth weakened our race with disgraceful luxury." 18
And very many vehemently praise the barter system which men used before
money was devised, and which even now obtains among certain simple
peoples.
And next they raise a great outcry against other metals, as iron, than
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which they say nothing more pernicious could have been brought into the
life of man. For it is employed in making swords, javelins, spears, pikes,
arrowsweapons by which men are wounded, and which cause slaughter,
robbery, and wars. These things so moved the wrath of Pliny that he wrote:
"Iron is used not only in hand to hand fighting, but also to form the winged
missiles of war, sometimes for hurling engines, sometimes for lances, some−
times even for arrows. I look upon it as the most deadly fruit of human
ingenuity. For to bring Death to men more quickly we have given wings to
iron and taught it to fly." 19 The spear, the arrow from the bow, or the bolt
from the catapult and other engines can be driven into the body of only one
man, while the iron cannon−ball fired through the air, can go through the
bodies of many men, and there is no marble or stone object so hard that it
cannot be shattered by the force and shock. Therefore it levels the highest
towers to the ground, shatters and destroys the strongest walls. Certainly
the ballistas which throw stones, the battering rams and other ancient war
engines for making breaches in walls of fortresses and hurling down strong−
holds, seem to have little power in comparison with our present cannon.
These emit horrible sounds and noises, not less than thunder, flashes
of fire burst from them like the lightning, striking, crushing, and shatter−
ing buildings, belching forth flames and kindling fires even as lightning
flashes. So that with more justice could it be said of the impious men of
our age than of Salmoneus of ancient days, that they had snatched lightning
from Jupiter and wrested it from his hands. Nay, rather there has been
sent from the infernal regions to the earth this force for the destruction of
men, so that Death may snatch to himself as many as possible by one stroke.
But because muskets are nowadays rarely made of iron, and the large
ones never, but of a certain mixture of copper and tin, they confer more
maledictions on copper and tin than on iron. In this connection too, they
mention the brazen bull of Phalaris, the brazen ox of the people of Per−
gamus, racks in the shape of an iron dog or a horse, manacles, shackles,
wedges, hooks, and red−hot plates. Cruelly racked by such instruments,
people are driven to confess crimes and misdeeds which they have never
committed, and innocent men are miserably tortured to death by every
conceivable kind of torment.
It is claimed too, that lead is a pestilential and noxious metal, for men
are punished by means of molten lead, as Horace describes in the ode
addressed to the Goddess Fortune: "Cruel Necessity ever goes before thee
bearing in her brazen hand the spikes and wedges, while the awful hook and
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molten lead are also not lacking." 20 In their desire to excite greater odium
for this metal, they are not silent about the leaden balls of muskets, and they
find in it the cause of wounds and death.
They contend that, inasmuch as Nature has concealed metals far within
the depths of the earth, and because they are not necessary to human life,
they are therefore despised and repudiated by the noblest, and should not be
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mined, and seeing that when brought to light they have always proved the
cause of very great evils, it follows that mining is not useful to mankind
but on the contrary harmful and destructive. Several good men have
been so perturbed by these tragedies that they conceive an intensely bitter
hatred toward metals, and they wish absolutely that metals had never been
created, or being created, that no one had ever dug them out. The more I
commend the singular honesty, innocence, and goodness of such men, the
more anxious shall I be to remove utterly and eradicate all error from their
minds and to reveal the sound view, which is that the metals are most useful
to mankind.
In the first place then, those who speak ill of the metals and refuse to
make use of them, do not see that they accuse and condemn as wicked the
Creator Himself, when they assert that He fashioned some things vainly
and without good cause, and thus they regard Him as the Author of evils
which opinion is certainly not worthy of pious and sensible men.
In the next place, the earth does not conceal metals in her depths
because she does not wish that men should dig them out, but because
provident and sagacious Nature has appointed for each thing its place. She
generates them in the veins, stringers, and seams in the rocks, as though
in special vessels and receptacles for such material. The metals cannot be
produced in the other elements because the materials for their formation
are wanting. For if they were generated in the air, a thing that rarely
happens, they could not find a firm resting−place, but by their own force and
weight would settle down on to the ground. Seeing then that metals have
their proper abiding place in the bowels of the earth, who does not see that
these men do not reach their conclusions by good logic?
They say, "Although metals are in the earth, each located in its own
proper place where it originated, yet because they lie thus enclosed and
hidden from sight, they should not be taken out." But, in refutation of these
attacks, which are so annoying, I will on behalf of the metals instance the
fish, which we catch, hidden and concealed though they be in the water, even
in the sea. Indeed, it is far stranger that man, a terrestrial animal, should
search the interior of the sea than the bowels of the earth. For as birds are
born to fly freely through the air, so are fishes born to swim through the
waters, while to other creatures Nature has given the earth that they might
live in it, and particularly to man that he might cultivate it and draw out
of its caverns metals and other mineral products. On the other hand, they
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say that we eat fish, but neither hunger nor thirst is dispelled by minerals,
nor are they useful in clothing the body, which is another argument by
which these people strive to prove that metals should not be taken out. But
man without metals cannot provide those things which he needs for food and
clothing. For, though the produce of the land furnishes the greatest
abundance of food for the nourishment of our bodies, no labour can be
carried on and completed without tools. The ground itself is turned up
with ploughshares and harrows, tough stalks and the tops of the roots are
broken off and dug up with a mattock, the sown seed is harrowed, the corn
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field is hoed and weeded; the ripe grain with part of the stalk is cut down
by scythes and threshed on the floor, or its ears are cut off and stored in the
barn and later beaten with flails and winnowed with fans, until finally the
pure grain is stored in the granary, whence it is brought forth again when
occasion demands or necessity arises. Again, if we wish to procure better
and more productive fruits from trees and bushes, we must resort to
cultivating, pruning, and grafting, which cannot be done without tools.
Even as without vessels we cannot keep or hold liquids, such as milk, honey,
wine, or oil, neither could so many living things be cared for without
buildings to protect them from long−continued rain and intolerable cold.
Most of the rustic instruments are made of iron, as ploughshares, share−
beams, mattocks, the prongs of harrows, hoes, planes, hay−forks, straw
cutters, pruning shears, pruning hooks, spades, lances, forks, and weed
cutters. Vessels are also made of copper or lead. Neither are wooden
instruments or vessels made without iron. Wine cellars, oil−mills, stables,
or any other part of a farm building could not be built without iron tools.
Then if the bull, the wether, the goat, or any other domestic animal is led
away from the pasture to the butcher, or if the poulterer brings from the farm
a chicken, a hen, or a capon for the cook, could any of these animals be cut
up and divided without axes and knives? I need say nothing here about
bronze and copper pots for cooking, because for these purposes one could
make use of earthen vessels, but even these in turn could not be made and
fashioned by the potter without tools, for no instruments can be made out
of wood alone, without the use of iron. Furthermore, hunting, fowling, and
fishing supply man with food, but when the stag has been ensnared does not
the hunter transfix him with his spear? As he stands or runs, does he not
pierce him with an arrow? Or pierce him with a bullet? Does not the
fowler in the same way kill the moor−fowl or pheasant with an arrow? Or
does he not discharge into its body the ball from the musket? I will not
speak of the snares and other instruments with which the woodcock, wood−
pecker, and other wild birds are caught, lest I pursue unseasonably and too
minutely single instances. Lastly, with his fish−hook and net does not the
fisherman catch the fish in the sea, in the lakes, in fish−ponds, or in rivers?
But the hook is of iron, and sometimes we see lead or iron weights attached
to the net. And most fish that are caught are afterward cut up and dis−
embowelled with knives and axes. But, more than enough has been said on
the matter of food.
Now I will speak of clothing, which is made out of wool, flax, feathers,
hair, fur, or leather. First the sheep are sheared, then the wool is combed.
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Next the threads are drawn out, while later the warp is suspended in the
shuttle under which passes the wool. This being struck by the comb, at length
cloth is formed either from threads alone or from threads and hair. Flax,
when gathered, is first pulled by hooks. Then it is dipped in water and
afterward dried, beaten into tow with a heavy mallet, and carded, then
drawn out into threads, and finally woven into cloth. But has the artisan
or weaver of the cloth any instrument not made of iron? Can one be made
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of wood without the aid of iron? The cloth or web must be cut into lengths
for the tailor. Can this be done without knife or scissors? Can the tailor
sew together any garments without a needle? Even peoples dwelling beyond
the seas cannot make a covering for their bodies, fashioned of feathers,
without these same implements. Neither can the furriers do without them
in sewing together the pelts of any kind of animals. The shoemaker needs
a knife to cut the leather, another to scrape it, and an awl to perforate it
before he can make shoes. These coverings for the body are either woven
or stitched. Buildings too, which protect the same body from rain, wind,
cold, and heat, are not constructed without axes, saws, and augers.
But what need of more words? If we remove metals from the service
of man, all methods of protecting and sustaining health and more care−
fully preserving the course of life are done away with. If there were no
metals, men would pass a horrible and wretched existence in the midst of
wild beasts; they would return to the acorns and fruits and berries of the
forest. They would feed upon the herbs and roots which they plucked up
with their nails. They would dig out caves in which to lie down at night,
and by day they would rove in the woods and plains at random like beasts,
and inasmuch as this condition is utterly unworthy of humanity, with its
splendid and glorious natural endowment, will anyone be so foolish or
obstinate as not to allow that metals are necessary for food and clothing and
that they tend to preserve life?
Moreover, as the miners dig almost exclusively in mountains otherwise
unproductive, and in valleys invested in gloom, they do either slight damage
to the fields or none at all. Lastly, where woods and glades are cut down,
they may be sown with grain after they have been cleared from the roots of
shrubs and trees. These new fields soon produce rich crops, so that they repair
the losses which the inhabitants suffer from increased cost of timber. More−
over, with the metals which are melted from the ore, birds without number,
edible beasts and fish can be purchased elsewhere and brought to these
mountainous regions.
I will pass to the illustrations I have mentioned. Bias of Priene, when his
country was taken, carried away out of the city none of his valuables. So
strong a man with such a reputation for wisdom had no need to fear personal
danger from the enemy, but this in truth cannot be said of him because he
hastily took to flight; the throwing away of his goods does not seem to me
so great a matter, for he had lost his house, his estates, and even his country,
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than which nothing is more precious. Nay, I should be convinced of Bias' s
contempt and scorn for possessions of this kind, if before his country was
captured he had bestowed them freely on relations and friends, or had
distributed them to the very poor, for this he could have done freely and
without question. Whereas his conduct, which the Greeks admire so
greatly, was due, it would seem, to his being driven out by the enemy and
stricken with fear. Socrates in truth did not despise gold, but would not
accept money for his teaching. As for Aristippus of Cyrene, if he had gath−
ered and saved the gold which he ordered his slaves to throw away, he might
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have bought the things which he needed for the necessaries of life, and he
would not. by reason of his poverty, have then been obliged to flatter the
tyrant Dionysius, nor would he ever have been called by him a King' s dog.
For this reason Horace, speaking of Damasippus when reviling Staberus for
valuing riches very highly, says:
"What resemblance has the Grecian Aristippus to this fellow?
He who commanded his slaves to throw away the gold in the midst of
Libya because they went too slowly, impeded by the weight of their
burdenwhich of these two men is the more insane?" 21
Insane indeed is he who makes more of riches than of virtue. Insane
also is he who rejects them and considers them as worth nothing, instead of
using them with reason. Yet as to the gold which Aristippus on another
occasion flung into the sea from a boat, this he did with a wise and prudent
mind. For learning that it was a pirate boat in which he was sailing, and
fearing for his life, he counted his gold and then throwing it of his own will
into the sea, he groaned as if he had done it unwillingly. But afterward,
when he escaped the peril, he said: "It is better that this gold itself should
be lost than that I should have perished because of it." Let it be granted
that some philosophers, as well as Anacreon of Teos, despised gold and
silver. Anaxagoras of Clazomenae also gave up his sheep−farms and
became a shepherd. Crates the Theban too, being annoyed that his
estate and other kinds of wealth caused him worry, and that in his con−
templations his mind was thereby distracted, resigned a property valued at
ten talents, and taking a cloak and wallet, in poverty devoted all his
thought and efforts to philosophy. Is it true that because these philo−
sophers despised money, all others declined wealth in cattle? Did they
refuse to cultivate lands or to dwell in houses? There were certainly many,
on the other hand, who, though affluent, became famous in the pursuit of
learning and in the knowledge of divine and human laws, such as Aristotle,
Cicero, and Seneca. As for Phocion, he did not deem it honest to accept the
gold sent to him by Alexander. For if he had consented to use it, the
king as much as himself would have incurred the hatred and aversion of
the Athenians, and these very people were afterward so ungrateful toward
this excellent man that they compelled him to drink hemlock. For what
would have been less becoming to Marcus Curius and Fabricius Luscinus
than to accept gold from their enemies, who hoped that by these means
those leaders could be corrupted or would become odious to their fellow
citizens, their purpose being to cause dissentions among the Romans and
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destroy the Republic utterly. Lycurgus, however, ought to have given
instructions to the Spartans as to the use of gold and silver, instead of
abolishing things good in themselves. As to the Babytacenses, who does
not see that they were senseless and envious? For with their gold they might
have bought things of which they were in need, or even given it to neigh−
bouring peoples to bind them more closely to themselves with gifts and
favours. Finally, the Scythians, by condemning the use of gold and silver
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alone, did not free themselves utterly from avarice, because although he is not
enjoying them, one who can possess other forms of property may also
become avaricious.
Now let us reply to the attacks hurled against the products of mines.
In the first place, they call gold and silver the scourge of mankind because
they are the cause of destruction and ruin to their possessors. But in this
manner, might not anything that we possess be called a scourge to
human kind,whether it be a horse, or a garment, or anything else?
For, whether one rides a splendid horse, or journeys well clad, he would
give occasion to a robber to kill him. Are we then not to ride on horses,
but to journey on foot, because a robber has once committed a murder in
order that he may steal a horse? Or are we not to possess clothing, because
a vagabond with a sword has taken a traveller' s life that he may rob him
of his garment? The possession of gold and silver is similar. Seeing
then that men cannot conveniently do all these things, we should be on our
guard against robbers, and because we cannot always protect ourselves
from their hands, it is the special duty of the magistrate to seize wicked and
villainous men for torture, and, if need be, for execution.
Again, the products of the mines are not themselves the cause of war.
Thus, for example, when a tyrant, inflamed with passion for a woman of
great beauty, makes war on the inhabitants of her city, the fault lies in the
unbridled lust of the tyrant and not in the beauty of the woman. Likewise,
when another man, blinded by a passion for gold and silver, makes war
upon a wealthy people, we ought not to blame the metals but transfer all
blame to avarice. For frenzied deeds and disgraceful actions, which are
wont to weaken and dishonour natural and civil laws, originate from our
own vices. Wherefore Tibullus is wrong in laying the blame for war on
gold, when he says: "This is the fault of a rich man' s gold; there were
no wars when beech goblets were used at banquets." But Virgil, speaking of
Polymnestor, says that the crime of the murderer rests on avarice:
"He breaks all law; he murders Polydorus, and obtains gold by
violence. To what wilt thou not drive mortal hearts, thou accursed
hunger for gold?"
And again, justly, he says, speaking of Pygmalion, who killed Sichaeus:
"And blinded with the love of gold, he slew him unawares with
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stealthy sword." 22
For lust and eagerness after gold and other things make men blind, and
this wicked greed for money, all men in all times and places have considered
dishonourable and criminal. Moreover, those who have been so addicted to
avarice as to be its slaves have always been regarded as mean and sordid.
Similarly, too, if by means of gold and silver and gems men can overcome
the chastity of women, corrupt the honour of many people, bribe the course
of justice and commit innumerable wickednesses, it is not the metals which
are to be blamed, but the evil passions of men which become inflamed and
ignited; or it is due to the blind and impious desires of their minds. But
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although these attacks against gold and silver may be directed especially
against money, yet inasmuch as the Poets one after another condemn it,
their criticism must be met, and this can be done by one argument alone.
Money is good for those who use it well; it brings loss and evil to those who
use it ill. Hence, very rightly, Horace says:
"Dost thou not know the value of money; and what uses it serves?
It buys bread, vegetables, and a pint of wine."
And again in another place:
"Wealth hoarded up is the master or slave of each possessor; it
should follow rather than lead, the twisted rope. " 23
When ingenious and clever men considered carefully the system of barter,
which ignorant men of old employed and which even to−day is used by
certain uncivilised and barbarous races, it appeared to them so troublesome
and laborious that they invented money. Indeed, nothing more useful
could have been devised, because a small amount of gold and silver is of as
great value as things cumbrous and heavy; and so peoples far distant from one
another can, by the use of money, trade very easily in those things which
civilised life can scarcely do without.
The curses which are uttered against iron, copper, and lead have no
weight with prudent and sensible men, because if these metals were done
away with, men, as their anger swelled and their fury became unbridled,
would assuredly fight like wild beasts with fists, heels, nails, and teeth.
They would strike each other with sticks, hit one another with stones, or
dash their foes to the ground. Moreover, a man does not kill another with
iron alone, but slays by means of poison, starvation, or thirst. He may
seize him by the throat and strangle him; he may bury him alive in the
ground; he may immerse him in water and suffocate him; he may burn
or hang him; so that he can make every element a participant in the death
of men. Or, finally, a man may be thrown to the wild beasts. Another
may be sewn up wholly except his head in a sack, and thus be left to be
devoured by worms; or he may be immersed in water until he is torn to
pieces by sea−serpents. A man may be boiled in oil; he may be greased,
tied with ropes, and left exposed to be stung by flies and hornets; he may
be put to death by scourging with rods or beating with cudgels, or struck
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down by stoning, or flung from a high place. Furthermore, a man
may be tortured in more ways than one without the use of metals; as when
the executioner burns the groins and armpits of his victim with hot wax;
or places a cloth in his mouth gradually, so that when in breathing he
draws it slowly into his gullet, the executioner draws it back suddenly and
violently; or the victim' s hands are fastened behind his back, and he is
drawn up little by little with a rope and then let down suddenly. Or
similarly, he may be tied to a beam and a heavy stone fastened by a
cord to his feet, or finally his limbs may be torn asunder. From these
examples we see that it is not metals that are to be condemned, but our
vices, such as anger, cruelty, discord, passion for power, avarice, and lust.
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The question next arises, whether we ought to count metals amongst
the number of good things or class them amongst the bad. The Peripatetics
regarded all wealth as a good thing, and merely spoke of externals as having
to do with neither the mind nor the body. Well, let riches be an external
thing. And, as they said, many other things may be classed as good if it is
in one' s power to use them either well or ill. For good men employ them for
good, and to them they are useful. The wicked use them badly, and to
them they are harmful. There is a saying of Socrates, that just as wine
is influenced by the cask, so the character of riches is like their possessors.
The Stoics, whose custom it is to argue subtly and acutely, though they did
not put wealth in the category of good things, they did not count it amongst
the evil ones, but placed it in that class which they term neutral. For to
them virtue alone is good, and vice alone evil. The whole of what remains
is indifferent. Thus, in their conviction, it matters not whether one be in
good health or seriously ill; whether one be handsome or deformed. In
short:
"Whether, sprung from Inachus of old, and thus hast lived
beneath the sun in wealth, or hast been poor and despised among men,
it matters not."
For my part, I see no reason why anything that is in itself of use should
not be placed in the class of good things. At all events, metals are a
creation of Nature, and they supply many varied and necessary needs of the
human race, to say nothing about their uses in adornment, which are so
wonderfully blended with utility. Therefore, it is not right to degrade them
from the place they hold among the good things. In truth, if there is a
bad use made of them, should they on that account be rightly called evils?
For of what good things can we not make an equally bad or good use? Let
me give examples from both classes of what we term good. Wine, by far
the best drink, if drunk in moderation, aids the digestion of food, helps to
produce blood, and promotes the juices in all parts of the body. It is of use
in nourishing not only the body but the mind as well, for it disperses our
dark and gloomy thoughts, frees us from cares and anxiety, and restores
our confidence. If drunk in excess, however, it injures and prostrates the
body with serious disease. An intoxicated man keeps nothing to himself;
he raves and rants, and commits many wicked and infamous acts. On
this subject Theognis wrote some very clever lines, which we may render
thus:
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"Wine is harmful if taken with greedy lips, but if drunk in
moderation it is wholesome." 25
But I linger too long over extraneous matters. I must pass on to the
gifts of body and mind, amongst which strength, beauty, and genius
occur to me. If then a man, relying on his strength, toils hard to maintain
himself and his family in an honest and respectable manner, he uses the
gift aright, but if he makes a living out of murder and robbery, he uses it
wrongly. Likewise, too, if a lovely woman is anxious to please her husband
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alone she uses her beauty aright, but if she lives wantonly and is a victim
of passion, she misuses her beauty. In like manner, a youth who devotes
himself to learning and cultivates the liberal arts, uses his genius rightly.
But he who dissembles, lies, cheats, and deceives by fraud and dishonesty,
misuses his abilities. Now, the man who, because they are abused, denies that
wine, strength, beauty, or genius are good things, is unjust and blasphemous
towards the Most High God, Creator of the World; so he who would remove
metals from the class of blessings also acts unjustly and blasphemously
against Him. Very true, therefore, are the words which certain Greek
poets have written, as Pindar:
"Money glistens, adorned with virtue; it supplies the means by
which thou mayest act well in whatever circumstances fate may
have in store for thee." 26
And Sappho:
"Without the love of virtue gold is a dangerous and harmful guest,
but when it is associated with virtue, it becomes the source and height
of good."
And Callimachus:
"Riches do not make men great without virtue; neither do virtues
themselves make men great without some wealth."
And Antiphanes:
"Now, by the gods, why is it necessary for a man to grow rich?
Why does he desire to possess much money unless that he may, as
much as possible, help his friends, and sow the seeds of a harvest of
gratitude, sweetest of the goddesses." 27
Having thus refuted the arguments and contentions of adversaries,
let us sum up the advantages of the metals. In the first place, they are
useful to the physician, for they furnish liberally the ingredients for medi−
cines, by which wounds and ulcers are cured, and even plagues; so that
certainly if there were no other reasons why we should explore the depths of
the earth, we should for the sake of medicine alone dig in the mines. Again,
the metals are of use to painters, because they yield certain pigments which,
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when united with the painter' s slip, are injured less than others by the moisture
from without. Further, mining is useful to the architects, for thus is found
marble, which is suitable not only for strengthening large buildings, but
also for decoration. It is, moreover, helpful to those whose ambition urges
them toward immortal glory, because it yields metals from which are made
coins, statues, and other monuments, which, next to literary records, give men
in a sense immortality. The metals are useful to merchants with very great cause,
for, as I have stated elsewhere, the use of money which is made from metals is
much more convenient to mankind than the old system of exchange of commodi−
ties. In short, to whom are the metals not of use? In very truth, even the works
of art, elegant, embellished, elaborate, useful, are fashioned in various shapes by
the artist from the metals gold, silver, brass, lead, and iron. How few artists
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could make anything that is beautiful and perfect without using metals? Ev
if tools of iron or brass were not used, we could not make tools of wood a
stone without the help of metal. From all these examples are evident t
benefits and advantages derived from metals. We should not have ha
these at all unless the science of mining and metallurgy had been discovere
and handed down to us. Who then does not understand how highly usef
they are, nay rather, how necessary to the human race? In a word, ma
could not do without the mining industry, nor did Divine Providence wi
that he should.
Further, it has been asked whether to work in metals is honourab
employment for respectable people or whether it is not degrading an
dishonourable. We ourselves count it amongst the honourable arts. Fo
that art, the pursuit of which is unquestionably not impious, nor offensive
nor mean, we may esteem honourable. That this is the nature of th
mining profession, inasmuch as it promotes wealth by good and hones
methods, we shall show presently. With justice, therefore, we may clas
it amongst honourable employments. In the first place, the occupatio
of the miner, which I must be allowed to compare with other methods o
acquiring great wealth, is just as noble as that of agriculture; for, as th
farmer, sowing his seed in his fields injures no one, however profitable they
may prove to him, so the miner digging for his metals, albeit he draws forth
great heaps of gold or silver, hurts thereby no mortal man. Certainly these
two modes of increasing wealth are in the highest degree both noble and
honourable. The booty of the soldier, however, is frequently impious,
because in the fury of the fighting he seizes all goods, sacred as well as
profane. The most just king may have to declare war on cruel tyrants,
but in the course of it wicked men cannot lose their wealth and possessions
without dragging into the same calamity innocent and poor people, old
men, matrons, maidens, and orphans. But the miner is able to accumu−
late great riches in a short time, without using any violence, fraud, o
malice. That old saying is, therefore, not always true that "Every rich
man is either wicked himself, or is the heir to wickedness."
Some, however, who contend against us, censure and attack miners by
saying that they and their children must needs fall into penury after a short
time, because they have heaped up riches by improper means. According
to them nothing is truer than the saying of the poet Naevius:
"Ill gotten gains in ill fashion slip away."
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The following are some of the wicked and sinful methods by which
they say men obtain riches from mining. When a prospect of obtaining
metals shows itself in a mine, either the ruler or magistrate drives out the
rightful owners of the mines from possession, or a shrewd and cunning
neighbour perhaps brings a law−suit against the old possessors in order to
rob them of some part of their property. Or the mine superintendent imposes
on the owners such a heavy contribution on shares, that if they cannot pay,
or will not, they lose their rights of possession; while the superintendent,
contrary to all that is right, seizes upon all that they have lost. Or,
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finally, the mine foreman may conceal the vein by plastering over with
clay that part where the metal abounds, or by covering it with earth,
stones, stakes, or poles, in the hope that after several years the pro−
prietors, thinking the mine exhausted, will abandon it, and the foreman
can then excavate that remainder of the ore and keep it for himself.
They even state that the scum of the miners exist wholly by fraud,
deceit, and lying. For to speak of nothing else, but only of those
deceits which are practised in buying and selling, it is said they either
advertise the veins with false and imaginary praises, so that they can
sell the shares in the mines at one−half more than they are worth, or
on the contrary, they sometimes detract from the estimate of them so
that they can buy shares for a small price. By exposing such frauds our
critics suppose all good opinion of miners is lost. Now, all wealth,
whether it has been gained by good or evil means, is liable by some adverse
chance to vanish away. It decays and is dissipated by the fault and care−
lessness of the owner, since he loses it through laziness and neglect, or
wastes and squanders it in luxuries, or he consumes and exhausts it in gifts,
or he dissipates and throws it away in gambling:
"Just as though money sprouted up again, renewed from an exhausted
coffer, and was always to be obtained from a full heap."
It is therefore not to be wondered at if miners do not keep in mind the
counsel given by King Agathocles: "Unexpected fortune should be held
in reverence," for by not doing so they fall into penury; and particularly
when the miners are not content with moderate riches, they not rarely spend
on new mines what they have accumulated from others. But no just ruler
or magistrate deprives owners of their possessions; that, however, may be
done by a tyrant, who may cruelly rob his subjects not only of their goods
honestly obtained, but even of life itself. And yet whenever I have inquired
into the complaints which are in common vogue, I always find that the
owners who are abused have the best of reasons for driving the men from
the mines; while those who abuse the owners have no reason to complain
about them. Take the case of those who, not having paid their contributions,
have lost the right of possession, or those who have been expelled by the magis−
trate out of another man' s mine: for some wicked men, mining the small
veins branching from the veins rich in metal, are wont to invade the property
of another person. So the magistrate expels these men accused of wrong,
and drives them from the mine. They then very frequently spread
unpleasant rumours concerning this amongst the populace. Or, to take
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another case: when, as often happens, a dispute arises between neighbours,
arbitrators appointed by the magistrate settle it, or the regular judges
investigate and give judgment. Consequently, when the judgment is given,
inasmuch as each party has consented to submit to it, neither side should
complain of injustice; and when the controversy is adjudged, inasmuch as
the decision is in accordance with the laws concerning mining, one of the
parties cannot be injured by the law. I do not vigorously contest the point,
that at times a mine superintendent may exact a larger contribution
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from the owners than necessity demands. Nay, I will admit that a for
man may plaster over, or hide with a structure, a vein where it is rich i
metals. Is the wickedness of one or two to brand the many honest wit
fraud and trickery? What body is supposed to be more pious and virtuou
in the Republic than the Senate? Yet some Senators have been detecte
in peculations, and have been punished. Is this any reason that so honour
able a house should lose its good name and fame? The superintenden
cannot exact contributions from the owners without the knowledge an
permission of the Bergmeister or the deputies; for this reason decep
tion of this kind is impossible. Should the foremen be convicted o
fraud, they are beaten with rods; or of theft, they are hanged. I
is complained that some sellers and buyers of the shares in mines ar
fraudulent. I concede it. But can they deceive anyone except a stupid
careless man, unskilled in mining matters? Indeed, a wise and pruden
man, skilled in this art, if he doubts the trustworthiness of a seller o
buyer, goes at once to the mine that he may for himself examine the vei
which has been so greatly praised or disparaged, and may consider whethe
he will buy or sell the shares or not. But people say, though such an on
can be on his guard against fraud, yet a simple man and one who is easil
credulous, is deceived. But we frequently see a man who is trying to mislea
another in this way deceive himself, and deservedly become a laughing
stock for everyone; or very often the defrauder as well as the dupe i
entirely ignorant of mining. If, for instance, a vein has been found to b
abundant in ore, contrary to the idea of the would−be deceiver, then he wh
was to have been cheated gets a profit, and he who has been the deceive
loses. Nevertheless, the miners themselves rarely buy or sell shares, bu
generally they have jurati venditores 28 who buy and sell at such prices as the
have been instructed to give or accept. Seeing therefore, that magistrate
decide disputes on fair and just principles, that honest men deceive nobody
while a dishonest one cannot deceive easily, or if he does he cannot do s
with impunity, the criticism of those who wish to disparage the honesty
miners has therefore no force or weight.
In the next place, the occupation of the miner is objectionable t
nobody. For who, unless he be naturally malevolent and envious, wi
hate the man who gains wealth as it were from heaven? Or who will hat
a man who to amplify his fortune, adopts a method which is free fro
reproach? A moneylender, if he demands an excessive interest, incurs th
hatred of men. If he demands a moderate and lawful rate, so that he is n
injurious to the public generally and does not impoverish them, he fails t
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become very rich from his business. Further, the gain derived from minin
is not sordid, for how can it be such, seeing that it is so great, so plentifu
and of so innocent a nature. A merchant' s profits are mean and base whe
he sells counterfeit and spurious merchandise, or puts far too high a pri
on goods that he has purchased for little; for this reason the mercha
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would be held in no less odium amongst good men than is the usurer, did
they not take account of the risk he runs to secure his merchandise. In
truth, those who on this point speak abusively of mining for the sake of
detracting from its merits, say that in former days men convicted of crimes
and misdeeds were sentenced to the mines and were worked as slaves. But
to−day the miners receive pay, and are engaged like other workmen in the
common trades.
Certainly, if mining is a shameful and discreditable employment for a
gentleman because slaves once worked mines, then agriculture also will not be
a very creditable employment, because slaves once cultivated the fields, and
even to−day do so among the Turks; nor will architecture be considered
honest, because some slaves have been found skilful in that profession;
nor medicine, because not a few doctors have been slaves; nor will any other
worthy craft, because men captured by force of arms have practised it.
Yet agriculture, architecture, and medicine are none the less counted
amongst the number of honourable professions; therefore, mining
ought not for this reason to be excluded from them. But suppose we
grant that the hired miners have a sordid employment. We do not mean
by miners only the diggers and other workmen, but also those skilled in the
mining arts, and those who invest money in mines. Amongst them can be
counted kings, princes, republics, and from these last the most esteemed
citizens. And finally, we include amongst the overseers of mines the noble
Thucydides, the historian, whom the Athenians placed in charge of the
mines of Thasos. 29 And it would not be unseemly for the owners themselves
to work with their own hands on the works or ore, especially if they them−
selves have contributed to the cost of the mines. Just as it is not undignified
for great men to cultivate their own land. Otherwise the Roman Senate
would not have created Dictator L. Quintius Cincinnatus, as he was at
work in the fields, nor would it have summoned to the Senate House the
chief men of the State from their country villas. Similarly, in our day,
Maximilian Cæsar would not have enrolled Conrad in the ranks of the nobles
known as Counts; Conrad was really very poor when he served in the mines
of Schneeberg, and for that reason he was nicknamed the "poor man"; but
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not many years after, he attained wealth from the mines of Fürst, which
is a city in Lorraine, and took his name from "Luck." 30 Nor would
King Vladislaus have restored to the Assembly of Barons, Tursius, a
citizen of Cracow, who became rich through the mines in that part of the
kingdom of Hungary which was formerly called Dacia. 31 Nay, not even the
common worker in the mines is vile and abject. For, trained to vigilance
and work by night and day, he has great powers of endurance when occasion
demands, and easily sustains the fatigues and duties of a soldier, for he is
accustomed to keep long vigils at night, to wield iron tools, to dig trenches,
to drive tunnels, to make machines, and to carry burdens. Therefore, experts
in military affairs prefer the miner, not only to a commoner from the town,
but even to the rustic.
But to bring this discussion to an end, inasmuch as the chief callings
are those of the moneylender, the soldier, the merchant, the farmer, and the
miner, I say, inasmuch as usury is odious, while the spoil cruelly captured
from the possessions of the people innocent of wrong is wicked in the sight
of God and man, and inasmuch as the calling of the miner excels in honour
and dignity that of the merchant trading for lucre, while it is not less noble
though far more profitable than agriculture, who can fail to realize that
mining is a calling of peculiar dignity? Certainly, though it is but one of
ten important and excellent methods of acquiring wealth in an honourable
way, a careful and diligent man can attain this result in no easier way
than by mining.
END OF BOOK I.